About EEG Test

What is an EEG Test for the Brain?

EEG is a short form for electroencephalogram and is used to detect your brain activity and if there are any abnormalities present in the activity pattern. The test is very simple and is harmless. Being a non-invasive test it does not cause the patient any pain nor does it leave any scarring.

Brain cells communicate with each other in the form of impulses and the test records these brainwaves on a computer. The results from the EEG test look like wavy lines and as having valleys and peaks, similar to a heartbeat pattern. The doctor can easily analyze these results and determine if there are any abnormalities present in the brain.



When is EEG Performed?

As an EEG test records your brain activity, it can shed light on whether the brain is functioning properly or not. The doctor will prescribe this test to determine or to rule out any brain disorders.
Diagnose Epilepsy or other disorders which cause seizures, and see the type of seizures that are occurring
Check for any internal head injuries
Dementia or to check if there are any problems with the loss of consciousness
Find out if the patient’s brain is functioning or not while in a coma
Keep a check on brain activity while surgery is being performed on the brain
Detect strokes
Check for inflammation of the brain (Encephalitis)
Study any presence of sleep disorders, such as Narcolepsy

What is the EEG Procedure?


EEG is one of the simplest of tests. It does not cause any pain as it is non-invasive, unlike other tests which usually use syringes to take blood samples. The procedure includes the placing of electrodes on the scalp, each of them having its own individual wires.

The scalp is prepared for the test by cleaning it and removing dead skin cells and applying a gel or a paste before placing the electrodes. The patient experiences no pain in this procedure. The patient may be advised to stop taking certain medications before the procedure and they should consult the doctor about the medications they are taking. In some cases, the patient is also advised to avoid any coffee as it might alter the test results.

As the test is fairly simple, it can be performed in a small area in the doctor’s office or in the hospital. The patient is asked to sit in a chair or lie down on the bed. The EEG technician then begins to attach the electrodes to the scalp at pre-decided locations after applying the paste or gel. All the electrodes are connected to the EEG recording machine.

Most of the EEG tests take up to an hour to perform but those involving sleep analysis take more. The family members can stay with the patient if the doctor allows. Sometimes the patient may be required to sleep as little as possible the night before the test to get the best results.

This is generally done when the patient is required to sleep during the EEG. The doctor may also give the patient a sedative to help them to relax and sleep while the test is being performed.

After the test has been performed the EEG technician will come and remove the electrodes from the scalp of the patient. There are no side effects to the procedure but the sedative may take time to wear off if the patient has been given one.

The patient might not be allowed to drive or use any heavy machinery. If the patient is not under any sedative, they can continue with the normal routine of the day.

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Long COVID Now Looks like a Neurological Disease, Helping Doctors to Focus Treatments

One study found that in people with neurological COVID symptoms, the immune system seems to be activated specifically in the central nervous system, creating inflammation. But brain inflammation is probably not caused by the virus infecting that organ directly. Avindra Nath, who has long studied postviral neurological syndromes at the National Institutes of Health, found something similar in an autopsy study of people who died of COVID. “When you look at the COVID brain, you don't actually find [huge amounts of virus, but] we found a lot of immune activation,” he says, particularly around blood vessels. The examinations suggested that immune cells called macrophages had been stirred up. “Macrophages are not that precise in their attack,” Nath says. “They come and start chewing things up; they produce all kinds of free radicals, cytokines. It's almost like blanket bombing—it ends up causing a lot of damage. And they're very hard to shut down, so they persist for a long time. These are the unwelcome guests” that may be causing persistent inflammation in the brain.

Determining which patients have ongoing inflammation could help inform treatments. Early research identified markers that often are elevated in people with the condition, says Troy Torgerson, an immunologist at the Allen Institute in Seattle. Three cell-signaling molecules—tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin 6 and interferon beta—stood out in long COVID patients. But this pattern wasn't found in absolutely everyone. “We're trying to sort through long COVID patients and say, ‘This would be a good group to take to trials of an anti-inflammatory drug, whereas this group may need to focus more on rehabilitation,’” Torgerson says. He led a study (currently released as a preprint, without formal scientific review by a journal) in which his team measured proteins from the blood of 55 patients. The researchers found that a subset had persistent inflammation. Among those people, they saw a distinct immune pathway linked to a lasting response to infection. “One subset of patients does appear to have an ongoing response to some virus,” Torgerson says.

Isolated pockets of SARS-CoV-2 or even pieces of viral proteins may remain in the body well after the initial infection and continue to elicit an immune attack. The first solid evidence for “viral persistence” outside the lungs came in 2021 from researchers in Singapore who found viral proteins throughout the gut in five patients who had recovered from COVID as much as six months earlier. A study conducted at the University of California, San Francisco, found evidence for viral particles in the brains of people with long COVID. Scientists collected exosomes, or tiny packets of cellular material, released specifically from cells of the central nervous system. The exosomes contained pieces of viral proteins as well as mitochondrial proteins, which may indicate an immune attack on those vital cellular organelles. Amounts of such suspicious proteins were higher in patients with neuropsychiatric symptoms than in those without them.

The virus could linger in the brain for months, according to research conducted at the NIH and reported in Nature in December 2022. The autopsy study of 44 people who died of COVID found rampant inflammation mainly in the respiratory tract, but viral RNA was detected throughout the body, even in the brain, as long as 230 days after infection. Two other studies, both published last year in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, showed evidence that SARS-CoV-2 may infect astrocytes, a type of neural support cell, gaining entrance via neurons in the skin lining the nose.

Researchers are examining inflammatory signals in patients with long COVID in increasingly fine detail. A small study led by Joanna Hellmuth, a neurologist at U.C.S.F., found that patients with cognitive symptoms had immune-related abnormalities in their cerebrospinal fluid, whereas none of the patients without cognitive symptoms did. At the 2022 meeting of the Society for Neuroscience, Hellmuth reported that she had looked at more specific immune markers in people with cognitive symptoms and found that some patients had an elevated level of VEGF-C, a marker of endothelial dysfunction. Higher VEGF-C concentrations are associated with higher levels of immune cells getting into the brain, she says, and “they're not doing their normal function of maintaining the blood-brain barrier; they're distracted and perhaps activated.” Although the studies are small, Hellmuth adds, they reveal “real biological distinctions and inflammation in the brain. This is not a psychological or psychosomatic disorder; this is a neuroimmune disorder.”

What keeps the immune system in attack mode? According to Torgerson, “one option is that you've developed autoimmunity,” in which antibodies produced by the immune system to fight the virus also mark a person's own cells for immune attack. The response to the virus “turns the autoimmunity on, and that doesn't get better even when the virus goes away,” he says. Several studies have found evidence of autoimmune components called autoantibodies that interact with nerve cells in people with long COVID.

Clues about the inflammatory processes at work could point toward treatments for neurological symptoms. “If it's a macrophage-mediated inflammatory process ... intravenous immunoglobulin could make a difference [to] dampen the macrophages,” Nath says. The treatment, referred to as IVIg, contains a cocktail of proteins and antibodies that can mitigate an overactive immune response.

IVIg can also be used to block autoantibodies. And a therapy called rituximab that targets antibody-producing B cells provides “a time-tested therapy for a lot of autoantibody-mediated syndromes,” Nath says. Another strategy is to use corticosteroids to dampen immune activity altogether, although those drugs can be used for only a limited time. “That's a sledgehammer approach, and you can see if it makes a difference. At least it gives you an idea that, yes, it's an immune-mediated phenomenon, and now we need to find a better way to target it,” Nath says.

If the virus does hang around in some form, antiviral medications could potentially clear it, which might help resolve neurological symptoms. That's the hope of scientists running a clinical trial of Paxlovid, Pfizer's antiviral drug for acute COVID.

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Study Aims to Understand Why Women More Likely to Develop Alzheimer’s Disease

Tasmanian researchers are one step closer to understanding why women are more likely to develop Alzheimer’s disease, with their research recently published in the journal Neurology.

Professor Jane Alty and Aidan Bindoff from the University’s Wicking Dementia Research and Education Center led a team of researchers to determine if cognitive reserve (education and IQ) slowed down age-related cognitive decline equally in males and females.

“We know women have a higher age-adjusted incidence of Alzheimer’s disease than men, but the reasons remain unclear. It is not simply related to women living longer than men,” Professor Alty said.

“One proposed contributing factor is that, historically, women had less access to education and therefore may have accumulated less cognitive reserve.”

Cognitive reserve refers to the ability to buffer the effects of physical changes in the brain so it does not have a direct effect on function.

“People who have developed higher cognitive reserve over their lifetime (through more education and other cognitively stimulating activities such as employment and hobbies) generally do not show as marked decline in their memory and thinking functions,” Professor Alty said.

Researchers measured cognitive reserve using total years of education and by measuring their IQ, accessing data through the Wicking Center’s Tasmanian Healthy Brain Project (THBP).

The THBP is a long-term cohort study, recruiting healthy Australians aged 50–80 years without cognitive impairment that began about 10 years ago.

The THBP aimed to determine if university education later in life reduced age-related cognitive decline and significantly decreases risk, or delays the onset, of dementia.

Data from 562 participants (383 females and 179 males) was analyzed for Professor Alty’s study.

The study’s results showed that cognitive reserve, measured through IQ, moderated the steepness of age-related cognitive decline in males, but not in females.

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What is an Electroencephalogram? (EEG)

An electroencephalogram (EEG) is a diagnostic test that detects electrical activity in the brain using electrodes (small, flat metal discs) attached to the scalp. These electrodes are special sensors with wires attached to a computer. The computer records the brain’s electrical activity through wavy lines.

An EEG is a non-invasive procedure usually recommended by neurologists to diagnose neurological and brain diseases. The test is done by an EEG technician at the doctor’s office/hospital/lab.

Why is an EEG done?


An EEG is primarily used to detect a condition called epilepsy (seizures) in which the brain’s normal electrical activity is altered. An EEG can also detect the type of seizure.

• EEGs are also used to:Check out brain injuries
• Ascertain reasons for unexplained fainting spells or bouts of unconsciousness
• Check out memory disorders like dementia and Alzheimer’s
• Ascertain if a comatose person is brain dead
• Check for various tumors and brain cancers
• Diagnose sleep disorders like narcolepsy
• Monitor brain activity in an anesthetized state during brain surgeries
• Diagnose if a person’s disease can be attributed to a physiological reason (brain, spinal cord or nervous system) or a psychological reason.

EEGs are not used to measure a person’s intelligence and this test should be done only on the recommendation of a physician/neurologist.

How is an EEG performed?

The brain cells or neurons communicate with each other via tiny electrical signals called impulses. The EEG measures these electrical impulses.

• The EEG procedure:The person is required to lie supine on a bed/reclining chair.
• Electrodes are attached to the scalp with the aid of an EEG electrode paste (which is a conductive gel).
• The electrodes are connected via wires to a recording machine/computer.
• The machine translates the brain impulses into wavy patterns recorded on the computer.
• The person needs to lie still during the procedure with eyes closed. Sometimes the person may be asked to breathe deeply or take quick breaths or focus on an object.

If there is a need for an EEG recording of brain activity for a longer period, ambulatory EEGs are available. In this case, the person will be required to carry a portable recorder.

Neurology and Neuro Disorders Conferences, organized by the Pencis group. Essential Neurology and Neuro Disorders Conferences put emphasis on its theme "Innovation through Information on Neurology and Neuro Disorders" and intends to provide an impetus to health practice, administration, and training in connection to health inconsistencies and conjugation of other different points.

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How Do Synapses Work?

 

“The synapse is essential for life,” said MendellRimer, PhD, an associate professor in the Department of Neuroscience and Experimental Therapeutics at the Texas A&M College of Medicine. He studies a specific synapse called the neuromuscular junction, which—as the name implies—connects a motor neuron with a skeletal muscle fiber. Here, he explains how synapses work and what we do—and don’t—know about these crucial connections.

Synapses are part of the circuit that connects sensory organs, like those that detect pain or touch, in the peripheral nervous system to the brain. Synapses connect neurons in the brain to neurons in the rest of the body and from those neurons to the muscles. This is how the intention to move our arm, for example, translates into the muscles of the arm actually moving. Synapses are also important within the brain, and play a vital role in the process of memory formation, for example.

“Transmission of information within the nervous system operates in circuits, which can take up information, like the fact that a ball is coming toward us, or create an output, like bringing the arm up to catch the ball,” Rimer said. “Each of these circuits has a number of synapses that connect the neurons that carry the sensory information to the brain about the approaching ball and the neurons that execute the motor commands from the brain to move the arm.”

At the same time, all of these transmissions need to happen very quickly, in milliseconds, so it seems to all happen simultaneously—and we aren’t hit in the face with the ball.

There are two different types of synapses, the electrical and the chemical, and they work very differently. The simpler type is the electrical synapse, in which there are essentially no gaps between the cells. Instead, ions travel through what are called gap junctions and transfer an electrical charge to the next neuron.

Neurology and Neuro Disorders Conferences, organized by the Pencis group. Essential Neurology and Neuro Disorders Conferences put emphasis on its theme "Innovation through Information on Neurology and Neuro Disorders" and intends to provide an impetus to health practice, administration, and training in connection to health inconsistencies and conjugation of other different points.

#Neurology #Neurologicaldisorders # Nervous system #Neuromuscular #Affective filter #Amygdala #Axon #Brain mapping #Central Nervous System #Central Nervous System #Cerebellum #Cerebral Cortex #Cognition #Dendrites #Dopamine #Glia #Neurons #Neuroplasticity #Neurotransmitters #Numeracy  #RAD learning #Synapse #EEG #EMG #NCS #Neurologist #Cranial nerves #Alzheimer's disease # Neuropathy #Radiculopathy

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Types of neurons

 

Neurons are the cells that make up the brain and the nervous system. They are the fundamental units that send and receive signals which allow us to move our muscles, feel the external world, think, form memories and much more.

Just from looking down a microscope, however, it becomes very clear that not all neurons are the same. So just how many types of neurons are there? And how do scientists decide on the categories? For neurons in the brain, at least, this isn’t an easy question to answer. For the spinal cord though, we can say that there are three types of neurons: sensory, motor, and interneurons.

Sensory neurons

Sensory neurons are the nerve cells that are activated by sensory input from the environment - for example, when you touch a hot surface with your fingertips, the sensory neurons will be the ones firing and sending off signals to the rest of the nervous system about the information they have received.

The inputs that activate sensory neurons can be physical or chemical, corresponding to all five of our senses. Thus, a physical input can be things like sound, touch, heat, or light. A chemical input comes from taste or smell, which neurons then send to the brain.

Most sensory neurons are pseudounipolar, which means they only have one axon which is split into two branches.

Motor neurons

Motor neurons of the spinal cord are part of the central nervous system (CNS) and connect to muscles, glands and organs throughout the body. These neurons transmit impulses from the spinal cord to skeletal and smooth muscles (such as those in your stomach), and so directly control all of our muscle movements. There are in fact two types of motor neurons: those that travel from spinal cord to muscle are called lower motor neurons, whereas those that travel between the brain and spinal cord are called upper motor neurons.

Motor neurons have the most common type of ‘body plan’ for a nerve cell - they are multipolar, each with one axon and several dendrites.

Interneurons

As the name suggests, interneurons are the ones in between - they connect spinal motor and sensory neurons. As well as transferring signals between sensory and motor neurons, interneurons can also communicate with each other, forming circuits of various complexity. They are multipolar, just like motor neurons.

Neurons in the brain

In the brain, the distinction between types of neurons is much more complex. Whereas in the spinal cord we could easily distinguish neurons based on their function, that isn’t the case in the brain. Certainly, there are brain neurons involved in sensory processing – like those in visual or auditory cortex – and others involved in motor processing – like those in the cerebellum or motor cortex.

However, within any of these sensory or motor regions, there are tens or even hundreds of different types of neurons. In fact, researchers are still trying to devise a way to neatly classify the huge variety of neurons that exist in the brain.

Looking at which neurotransmitter a neuron uses is one way that could be a useful for classifying neurons.

However, within categories we can find further distinctions. Some GABA neurons, for example, send their axon mostly to the cell bodies of other neurons; others prefer to target the dendrites. Furthermore, these different neurons have different electrical properties, different shapes, different genes expressed, different projection patterns and receive different inputs. In other words, a particular combination of features is one way of defining a neuron type.

The thought is that a single neuron type should perform the same function, or suite of functions, within the brain. Scientists would consider where the neuron projects to, what it connects with and what input it receives.

Neurology and Neuro Disorders Conferences, organized by the Pencis group. Essential Neurology and Neuro Disorders Conferences put emphasis on its theme "Innovation through Information on Neurology and Neuro Disorders" and intends to provide an impetus to health practice, administration, and training in connection to health inconsistencies and conjugation of other different points.

#Neurology #Neurologicaldisorders # Nervous system #Neuromuscular #Affective filter #Amygdala #Axon #Brain mapping #Central Nervous System #Central Nervous System #Cerebellum #Cerebral Cortex #Cognition #Dendrites #Dopamine #Glia #Neurons #Neuroplasticity #Neurotransmitters #Numeracy  #RAD learning #Synapse #EEG #EMG #NCS #Neurologist #Cranial nerves #Alzheimer's disease # Neuropathy #Radiculopathy

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Neuropathic pain

 What is neuropathic pain?

Neuropathic pain can happen if your nervous system is damaged or not working correctly. You can feel pain from any of the various levels of the nervous system—the peripheral nerves, the spinal cord and the brain. Together, the spinal cord and the brain are known as the central nervous system. Peripheral nerves are the ones that are spread throughout the rest of your body to places likes organs, arms, legs, fingers and toes.
Damaged nerve fibers send the wrong signals to pain centers. Nerve function may change at the site of the nerve damage, as well as areas in the central nervous system (central sensitization).
Neuropathy is a disturbance of function or a change in one or several nerves. Diabetes is responsible for about 30% of neuropathy cases. It is not always easy to tell the source of the neuropathic pain. There are hundreds of diseases that are linked to this kind of pain.

What are some of the sources of neuropathic pain?

Neuropathic pain can be caused by diseases, including:

Alcoholism.

Diabetes.

Facial nerve problems.

HIV infection or AIDS.

Central nervous system disorders (stroke, Parkinson’s disease, multiple sclerosis, etc.)

Complex regional pain syndrome.

Shingles. (Pain that continues after your bout with shingles ends is called postherpetic neuralgia.)

Other causes include:

Chemotherapy drugs (cisplatin, paclitaxel, vincristine, etc.).

Radiation therapy.

Amputation, which can cause phantom pain.

Spinal nerve compression or inflammation.

Trauma or surgeries with resulting nerve damage.

Nerve compression or infiltration by tumors.

What are the symptoms of neuropathic pain?

Many symptoms may be present in the case of neuropathic pain. These symptoms include:

Spontaneous pain (pain that comes without stimulation): Shooting, burning, stabbing, or electric shock-like pain; tingling, numbness, or a “pins and needles” feeling

Evoked pain: Pain brought on by normally non-painful stimuli such as cold, gentle brushing against the skin, pressure, etc. This is called allodynia. Evoked pain also may mean the increase of pain by normally painful stimuli such as pinpricks and heat. This type of pain is called hyperalgesia.

An unpleasant, abnormal sensation whether spontaneous or evoked (dysesthesia).

Trouble sleeping, and emotional problems due to disturbed sleep and pain.

Pain that may be lessened in response to a normally painful stimulus (hypoalgesia).

Neurology and Neuro Disorders Conferences, organized by the Pencis group. Essential Neurology and Neuro Disorders Conferences put emphasis on its theme "Innovation through Information on Neurology and Neuro Disorders" and intends to provide an impetus to health practice, administration, and training in connection to health inconsistencies and conjugation of other different points.

#Neurology #Neurologicaldisorders # Nervous system #Neuromuscular #Affective filter #Amygdala #Axon #Brain mapping #Central Nervous System #Central Nervous System #Cerebellum #Cerebral Cortex #Cognition #Dendrites #Dopamine #Glia #Neurons #Neuroplasticity #Neurotransmitters #Numeracy  #RAD learning #Synapse #EEG #EMG #NCS #Neurologist #Cranial nerves #Alzheimer's disease # Neuropathy #Radiculopathy

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What are the signs of neurological problems?

Neurological symptoms are symptoms caused by, or occurring in, the nervous system. The nervous system consists of two anatomic parts. The central nervous system, which includes the brain and spinal cord, acts as a central processing station. The peripheral nervous system transmits sensory information between the muscles, tissues and nerves in the rest of the body to the brain. When these connections are disrupted, neurological symptoms occur.

Neurological symptoms often originate in the peripheral nervous system and include burning, numbness, pins-and-needles (prickling) sensations, muscle weakness or paralysis, and sensitivity. These symptoms may be caused by a local injury, when the pain can be directly related to a trauma, or a systemic illness that affects your entire body. With referred pain, a more complex condition, the sensation of pain is felt in a different part of your body from where the injury or illness actually occurred. Referred pain is the most difficult to diagnose and treat.

Neurological symptoms can arise from one nerve or many. Some syndromes, such as carpal tunnel syndrome, occur when a nerve is compressed and deprived of proper blood flow. Diabetes is a common cause of peripheral neuropathies (nerve disorders), the result of nerve damage from high blood sugar. Neurological symptoms can stem from autoimmune diseases (such as lupus or Guillain-Barré syndrome) or viruses such as the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), Epstein-Barr, or varicella-zoster.

Neurological symptoms due to a malfunctioning of the autonomic nervous system (part of the peripheral nervous system) may interrupt involuntary actions such as breathing, swallowing, bladder control, or perspiration. They may be accompanied by symptoms of low blood pressure, such as dizziness or vertigo, or loss of consciousness. Seek immediate medical care (call 911) if you, or someone you are with, have any of these symptoms, as they can be life threatening.

Neurology and Neuro Disorders Conferences, organized by the Pencis group. Essential Neurology and Neuro Disorders Conferences put emphasis on its theme "Innovation through Information on Neurology and Neuro Disorders" and intends to provide an impetus to health practice, administration, and training in connection to health inconsistencies and conjugation of other different points.

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#Neurons

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#Spinal cord

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NEUROLOGY

                                                      

neurology, medical specialty concerned with the nervous system and its functional or organic disorders. Neurologists diagnose and treat diseases and disorders of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves.The first scientific studies of nerve function in animals were performed in the early 18th century by English physiologist Stephen Hales and Scottish physiologist Robert Whytt. Knowledge was gained in the late 19th century about the causes of aphasia, epilepsy, and motor problems arising from brain damage. French neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot and English neurologist William Gowers described and classified many diseases of the nervous system. The mapping of the functional areas of the brain through selective electrical stimulation also began in the 19th century. Despite these contributions, however, most knowledge of the brain and nervous functions came from studies in animals and from the microscopic analysis of nerve cells.The electroencephalograph (EEG), which records electrical brain activity, was invented in the 1920s by Hans Berger. Development of the EEG, analysis of cerebrospinal fluid obtained by lumbar puncture (spinal tap), and development of cerebral angiography allowed neurologists to increase the precision of their diagnoses and develop specific therapies and rehabilitative measures. Further aiding the diagnosis and treatment of brain disorders were the development of computerized axial tomography (CT) scanning in the early 1970s and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in the 1980s, both of which yielded detailed, noninvasive views of the inside of the brain. (See brain scanning.) The identification of chemical agents in the central nervous system and the elucidation of their roles in transmitting and blocking nerve impulses have led to the introduction of a wide array of medications that can correct or alleviate various neurological disorders including Parkinson disease, multiple sclerosis, and epilepsy. Neurosurgery, a medical specialty related to neurology, has also benefited from CT scanning and other increasingly precise methods of locating lesions and other abnormalities in nervous tissues.

Neurology and Neuro Disorders Conferences, organized by the Pencis group. Essential Neurology and Neuro Disorders Conferences put emphasis on its theme "Innovation through Information on Neurology and Neuro Disorders" and intends to provide an impetus to health practice, administration, and training in connection to health inconsistencies and conjugation of other different points.

#Neurology #Neurologicaldisorders # Nervous system #Neuromuscular #Affective filter #Amygdala #Axon #Brain mapping #Central Nervous System #Central Nervous System #Cerebellum #Cerebral Cortex #Cognition #Dendrites #Dopamine #Glia #Neurons #Neuroplasticity #Neurotransmitters #Numeracy  #RAD learning #Synapse #EEG #EMG #NCS #Neurologist #Cranial nerves #Alzheimer's disease # Neuropathy #Radiculopathy

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